Hixkaryana [3] is one of the Carib languages, spoken by just over 500 people on the Nhamundá River, a tributary of the Amazon River in Brazil. It may have been the first language to be described as having an object–verb–subject word order (by linguist Desmond C. Derbyshire), though determining this is "difficult".
Phonology
Hixkaryana has the following consonant phonemes:
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/ɽˡ/ is a retroflex tap with a lateral release.
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The orthography used is as follows: /tʃ ɟ/ = ⟨tx dy⟩; /ɸ ʃ/ = ⟨f x⟩; /ɲ/ = ⟨ny⟩; /ɽˡ/ = ⟨ry⟩; /j/ = ⟨y⟩.
The vowels are /e/, /ɯ/, /u/, /ɔ/, and /æ/, written ⟨e⟩, ⟨ɨ⟩, ⟨u⟩, ⟨o⟩, and ⟨a⟩.
Grammar
In Hixkaryana, arguments are indexed on the verb by means of person prefixes. These prefixes form an inverse-like pattern in which the argument highest in the hierarchy 2nd > 1st > 3rd is indexed on the verb. If the object of a transitive verb outranks the subject according to this hierarchy, the appropriate O-prefix is used; otherwise, an A-prefix is used.
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A-prefixes
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O-prefixes
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1A
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0-/ɨ-
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1O
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r(o)
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2A
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m(ɨ)-
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2O
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o(j)-/a(j)-
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1+2A
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t(ɨ)-
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1+2O
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k(ɨ)-
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3A
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n(ɨ)-/j-
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Intransitive verbs take prefixes mostly similar to the transitive prefixes given above, with an active–stative . The arguments' grammatical number is indexed on the verb by means of portmanteau suffixes that combine tense, aspect, mood, and number.
In most cases, the person prefixes unambiguously determine which of the arguments is the subject and which is the object. When both the subject and the object are third person, however, the person prefix is inadequate to fully determine the identity of the arguments. In these situations, therefore, word order is crucial in determining their identity. Hixkaryana may have an object–verb–agent word order. The example below, "toto yonoye kamara", cannot be given the AVO reading "the man ate the jaguar"; the OVA reading – "the jaguar ate the man" – is the only possible one.
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toto
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yonoye
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kamara
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toto
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y-
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ono
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-ye
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kamara
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person
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3SG-
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eat
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-DIST.PAST.COMPL
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jaguar
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"The jaguar ate the man."
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Indirect objects, however, follow the subject:
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bɨryekomo
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yotahahono
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wosɨ
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tɨnyo
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wya
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bɨryekomo
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y-
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otaha
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-ho
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-no
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wosɨ
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tɨnyo
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wya
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boy
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3SG-
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hit
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-CAUS
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-IMM.PAST
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woman
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her-husband
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by
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"The woman caused her husband to hit the boy."
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Moreover, word order in non-finite embedded clauses is SOV. [1] Like most other languages with objects preceding the verb, it is postpositional.
References
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^ Hixkaryána at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013)
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^ Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Hixkaryana". Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
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^ Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student’s Handbook, Edinburgh
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Aikhenvald, A. & Dixon, R. (Eds.) (1999). The Amazonian Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Derbyshire, D. (1979). Hixkaryana. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing. ISBN.
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Derbyshire, D. (1985). Hixkaryana and Linguistic Typology. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
External links
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Parukotoan
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Pekodian
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Venezuelan Carib
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Pemóng–Panare
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Mapoyo–Tamanaku
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Guianan Carib
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Unclassified
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